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Electrons in a Non-Excited Atom Are Motionless
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* Electron configuration in a hydrogen atom is determined by only two factors. 1) Attraction from the nucleus, 2) buoyant force by space matter. * The radius of an atom is greater than that of the radius of its outermost electron shell. * The electric field of an electron in an atom will be always directed to the nucleus. * In a free hydrogen atom, the magnetic lines of both the electron and proton are parallel.
* If an atom has more than one electron, its electron configuration is determined by three factors. Thus, the electron configuration in a helium atom is determined by three factors. 1) Attraction from the nucleus, 2) repulsion between electrons, 3) buoyant force by space matter. In hydrogen atom and helium atom, the buoyant force is the only force that keeps their electrons from falling into the nucleus.
*Electron configuration in an oxygen atom is determined by three factors. 1) Attraction from the nucleus, 2) repulsion between electrons, 3) buoyant force by space matter. * If an electron shell has more than two electrons, then the electrons in that shell will be arranged spherically. How an atom emits light We see that the electric fields of electrons in an atom will be always directed to the nucleus. Also, the electric field and magnetic field of an electron is in right angles. We also see that, an atom has enormous number of space matter shells in it and each of they is having their own unique natural frequency. If a space matter shell has electron(s) in it, is called electron shell and if it has not, is called transitory shell. An atom can be excited in a different ways. By incident photons, collisions of energetic particles with atoms, collisions between atoms, exothermic chemical reactions etc. When an atom is excited, its shells (electron shells and transitory shells) start to oscillate. When an electron shell oscillates, the electron(s) in it also oscillate in the natural frequency of that shell. When oscillates, an electron creates a transverse wave on its standing- magnetic line [i.e. an oscillating electron creates oscillating magnetic line (OML photon)] and the wave is radiated to space. The wave is created perpendicular to the oscillation of the electron. I.e. there is a 900 angle between oscillation of electron and emission of photon. We see that, the density of space matter is greater in the inner region of the atom and it decreases with the increasing of the distance from the nucleus. So, for every oscillation towards the direction of the nucleus, the high-density space matter in the inner region of the atom expels the electron to an outer low-density space matter region and so, an electron will jump from its electron shell to an outer region with the emission of a photon (see Line spectrum of hydrogen atom). Because of this jumping of the electron, the electron loses its excitation simultaneously. This is the reason for the photon nature of radiation by an atom.
We see that, the flow of electrons through a conductor is caused by the attraction between electric fields of “mobile” electrons and the “fixed” positive charges in the conductor. Since the electron has electric and magnetic field in right angle, the flow of the electrons creates a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the current. When electrons are flowing through a conductor, the electric field of each of the electrons will be directed to its nearest and strongest positive charge. In the collective effect, the electric fields of the whole of the electrons will be aligned to the direction of the current and a collective magnetic field is created right angle to the electron flow (see.fig). As the velocity of electrons in a conductor increases, their alignment become more perfect and thus creates a stronger magnetic field.
We see that the flow of electrons through a conductor is caused by the attraction between electric fields of electrons and positive charges in the conductor. The to and fro motion (oscillation) of electrons in a conductor is caused by the alternation in the direction of electric attraction on electrons. Since the right angle relationship between electric field and magnetic field of the electron, the oscillation of an electron creates a transverse wave on its magnetic line and this oscillating magnetic line is radiated to space. As the drift velocity increases with the increasing of voltage, when the electrons oscillate at higher voltages, a radio transmitter creates high amplitude oscillating magnetic lines. When this oscillating magnetic lines fall on a receiver antenna, oscillating electric field is created within the antennae- just like the electromagnetic induction in a dynamo or a transformer and a tuned receiver can pickup the transmitted signal. Wireless energy transfer In wireless energy transfer, the energy is transmitted as transverse wave on magnetic lines that is just same as the transmission of radio waves. The making of high degree of resonance between transmitter and receiver result the system more energy efficient for a given transmission distance. Magnetic resistance We see that, when electrons are flowing through a conductor, the electric field of each of the electrons will be directed to its nearest and strongest positive charge and in the collective effect, the electric fields of the whole of the electrons will be aligned to the direction of the current. When the electric field of an electron and a positive charge come face-to-face, the “pull” between them will be maximum and the electron feels the lowest resistance (up state) in the conductor. But if the electron rotates, the pull between them decreases proportionally with the angle of rotation. By turning 900 angles, the electron feels the highest resistance (down state). Since the electron has electric and magnetic field in right angle, by applying an external magnetic field, we can rotate the electron from 00 to 900 angles and can create the equal number of different resistance combinations. Alignment of electrons in a magnetic domain and creation of magnetic field Magnetic field is created when charged particles are aligned in a single way in a material. For example, when electrons are flowing through a conductor, the electric fields of electrons will be directed to the direction of current and so their collective magnetic fields will be created right angle to the current. In the case of a magnetic domain, for the electrons that are participating to create the magnetic field, the whole of electric fields will be parallel each other and so the whole of magnetic fields will be also parallel each other. If more than one electron in an electron shell of an atom is participated, then they will be arranged in a single plane (in a circle). Curie point
As the
temperature increases, the atoms in a magnetic domain are starting to
oscillate randomly and so the electrons in it. This oscillations cause the
electrons lose their alignment in the domains. As the alignment fails, the
domain loses its magnetic property. The temperature, which can disrupt
alignment of electrons in a magnetic domain, is called Curie point. Exploring the line spectrum of hydrogen
When
the electron shell of a hydrogen atom is excited it will oscillate in its
natural frequency, and so the electron present in the shell. This
oscillation of the electron causes the emission of the shortest wavelength-
Lyman series photon (because, that frequency is the natural frequency of the
electron shell of hydrogen atom) and jumps from the shell to an outer
transitory shell. If there is no any further excitation for the atom, the
electron will instantaneously fall back to its original shell. Also, this
fall into the shell can cause, the shell get excited in a nominal fashion
and the emission of a low intensity photon in the natural frequency of the
shell (additionally, this oscillation of the electron can cause, it to jump
to a nearer outer transitory shell. If an energetic electron from an
external source simultaneously excites this transitory shell, the electron
will emit a Lyman series photon in a longer wavelength). But, if the
transitory shell (to which the electron has initially jumped) is
simultaneously excited by some ways (for example, collision of an energetic
electron from an external source --in a discharge tube-or collision between
atoms), the electron will again get excited and emit a photon in a longer
wavelength, in the natural frequency of that transitory shell. Also, this
excitation of the electron causes a further jumping to a more outer
transitory shell, and these processes can be continued until the electron is
expelled out from the atom and to turn the atom into plasma of hydrogen at a
very high temperature. For every jumping of the electron to a more and more outer transitory shells, and the excitations of that transitory shells can cause the emission of more and more long wavelength photons, and this is the reason for the emission of more long wavelength photons like Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series, Pfund series etc. Elasticity of atoms and heat transfer Atoms are highly elastic. The outer shells of atoms have high elasticity because of they have low density of space matter in it. The elasticity of shells gradually decreases as they close to the nucleus. There are many examples for the elastic nature of atoms. a) The random motions of gas atoms and collision between them, b) The random motions of molecules in a liquid, c) Vibrations of atoms in solid materials and heat transfer, Thermionic emissions, phonon etc all are evidences for the elastic nature of atoms. Atoms of lighter elements have more elasticity than that of the atoms of heavy elements. For example, gas atoms move in incredibly high speed and bounce when they collide with other gas atoms or its container.
Chapter 2 Some important phenomenon in the atomic world
Zeeman effect, Paschen-Back effect & Stark effect
We see
that, the electron configuration in an atom is determined by three factors.
a) Attractive force from the nucleus, b) repulsive forces between electrons
c) buoyant force by space matter. When an atom is placed in a strong
electric or magnetic field, its electron configuration is altered from the
atom’s normal state. That is, some of the electrons in the electron shells
are shifted to inner or outer transitory shells by the influence of the
external field.
When
such an atom is excited, it will emit radiations with the natural
frequencies of the ‘newly created electron shells’ and other transitory
shells. The Zeeman Effect is the direct
indication of strength of the magnetic field. I.e. when a weak field affects
only outer electrons, a stronger field influences both the inner and outer
electrons. Also, lighter elements can demonstrate
Zeeman Effect in a weak field comparatively than heavy elements,
because of the electrons in a lighter atom are loosely
binded than that of a heavy atom.
Absorption spectrum Every shell (electron shells and transitory shells) of an atom has its own unique natural frequency (or resonant frequency). When a cooled gas is placed in the path of continues spectrum of light, dark absorption lines will be appeared in the resulting spectrum. This absorption lines are caused by the absorption of that particular frequencies by the gas atoms. That means the natural frequencies of some of the electron shells and primary transitory shells of the gas atoms are same as the frequencies of the absorbed spectrum lines. Emission spectrum If the same gas is examined at an oblique angle, bright emission lines will be visible against a dark background. The emission spectrum lines are caused by the reflection of light (that absorbed by the gas atoms) by the electrons in the above stated shells. That is, the emission lines are purely the reflection of light from the gas atoms by its electrons. If we can make the whole of the absorption spectrum lines or emission spectrum lines of an atom in all frequencies from Infrared rays to X-rays at their cooled state (non-excited state), we can directly observe the natural frequencies of each of the electron shells and the primary transitory shells of that atom. The total number of electron shells and the primary transitory shells in an atom are equal to the total number of absorption or emission spectrum lines. And the natural frequencies of the electron shells and primary transitory shells are, if we consider the emission lines, then the highest frequency line for the innermost electron shell and the lowest frequency line for the outermost primary transitory shell. Same as, if we consider the absorption lines, then the highest frequency absorption line for the innermost electron shell and the lowest frequency absorption line for the outermost primary transitory shell.
Band
spectra
Band spectra are produced when the emitting substance is in the molecular state; therefore they are also called molecular spectra. When atoms are bonded together to form a molecule, the natural frequencies of the overlapped space matter shells are altered from their original natural frequencies. So, a molecule of a substance emits its own unique band spectra when it is excited and we can identify a molecule by analyzing its band spectra. Mechanism of reflection (reflection of light) The binding energy of 'light reflecting electrons' to its atoms / molecules or to the surface of a light reflecting material will be equal to or greater than that of the energy of incident photons. When light falls on these electrons, they will oscillate with the frequency of the incident photons and the light will be reflected. Photoelectric effect In an external photoelectric effect, electrons are liberated from the surface of a metallic conductor by absorbing energy from light shining on the metal’s surface. In this case, the binding energy of photoelectrons (electrons that are liberated) to the metal surface will be always lower than the energy of the incident photons that causes the photoelectric effect. The kinetic energy of a photoelectron is depends on the energy (frequency) of the incident photon. When energetic photons fall on the low binding energy electrons in the metal surface, they will oscillate with the frequency of incident photons. This oscillation causes, the oscillating electrons induce its oscillations to the elastic-outer shells of nearby atoms that in the metal surface. This oscillations of outer shells of the atoms cause, it to expel (kick) the low binding energy electrons from their surface. The kinetic energy of a photoelectron increases with the increasing of the frequency of incident photon. That is, as the ejection of photoelectrons are purely because of the elasticity of outer shells of atoms, as the energy of incident photons increases, the atoms kick the electrons with more kinetic energy. Thermionic emission We see that atoms are highly elastic and vibrations and elastic collisions between atoms cause the temperature of a material. As the thermal vibration of atoms in a material increases, its atoms kick out the low binding energy electrons the material. This is the reason for the Thermionic emission. Compton Effect
Compton Effect occurs when a high-energy photon falls on an atomic electron,
which with having a binding energy lowers than the energy of incident
photon. We see that, every electron shell in an atom has its own
unique natural frequency. When a high frequency photon falls on an electron
that in an electron shell which with having a natural frequency less than
that of the frequency of incident photon, because of an atomic electron can
only oscillate in the natural frequency of its electron shell within that
shell, the electron will oscillate in the natural frequency of its shell,
and a photon with the natural frequency of that electron shell is emitted at
an angle to the direction of the path of the incident photon. This emission
of the photon, which has a long wavelength than the incident photon, is the
Pair production The pair production is one of the most interesting demonstrations for the presence of space matter in atoms. When a gamma ray photon with the energy of 1.2 MeV is passed through near a heavy nucleus (that is, through the innermost transitory shells) it can result the production of one electron and one positron. The quantity of space matter that closer to a heavy nucleus is equal to or more than the mass of one electron and one positron, because of its high density at these region. When such an energetic gamma ray photon is passed through the high-density space matter region, the individual space matter units will be bonded together to produce the electron-positron pair. When a pair production occurs, the equal amount of space matter (with the mass of one electron and one positron) will be entered from outside of the atom and the natural densities of the space matter in the atomic shells will be always maintained. Primakoff effect Primakoff effect (the resonant production of neutral mesons by high-energy photons interacting with an atomic nucleus) is also an evidence for the space matter in atoms.
Chapter 3 Chemical reactions and releasing of energy
When atoms react with other atoms, the volume of individual atoms decrease because of the overlapping between them. I.e. the volume of any product molecule is less than the sum of the separate volumes of its reactant atoms. The releasing of energy in a chemical reaction is directly related to 'how much the atoms are overlapping each other'. If the overlapping is more, then the releasing of energy will be also more and if the overlapping is less, then the releasing of energy will be also less (see the relationship between bond length and bond energy). As the bond length decreases, the overlapping between atoms in the molecules increases and there by the releasing of energy.
We see that, space matter shells surround nuclei of atoms and the diameter of an atom is greater than the diameter of its outermost electron shell. I.e. the outermost electron shell of an atom is covered by further outer transitory shells. When a bond making between atoms occurs, the atom’s outer transitory shells overlap each other.
Reactions between two hydrogen atoms with one
oxygen atom is illustrated below
We can find some important facts from the above illustration a) In the bond making process, there is a decreasing of volume of the hydrogen and oxygen atoms from their natural volumes. And another important fact is that, the space matter densities of the shells that participated in the reactions are remain unchanged in the reaction. b) In the bond breaking process, the volume of hydrogen and oxygen atoms regains their natural volumes. And here also, the densities of the shells that participated in the reactions are remaining unchanged. Releasing of energy in a bond making reaction When two hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom are bonded together to form a water molecule, their net volume decrease, without changing (without increasing) the space matter densities in the shells. Then what will be happened? The only option is to release the overlapped volume of space matter that in the shells to the outer world. Since the space matter is in compressed state in the shells of atoms, when they released, it will explode. Since these explosions are take place where from the regions that the atoms are bonded together, the product molecule act as a projectile with great kinetic energy. When this energetic molecule collides with the surrounding molecules/atoms cause the generation of thermal energy.
We can
calculate the releasing of energy in a chemical reaction, by knowing the
expansion ratio from the space matter density that in the shells (shells
that participated in the reaction) and the density of space matter in the
empty space.
Absorption of energy in the bond breaking reaction
When
one water molecule splits into two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom, the
three atoms regain their natural volumes because of the withdrawal of their
overlapping, but without changing (without decreasing) space matter
densities in the shells. Absorbing the space matter that present in the
outer region of atoms in an extremely low density can only happen this. But,
for such a compression process of space matter, requires the same amount of
energy that released in the bonding of hydrogen
and oxygen atoms to form the water molecule (i.e. the binding energy of
hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a water molecule).
Mass defect Since an exothermic reaction releases space matter from the reactant atom's overlapped shells, the mass of the released space matter will be decreased from the reactant’s original masses (but this effect is only measurable if the reactants are in a very much quantity).
Single bond
nitrogen molecule (cross section)
Triple bond
nitrogen molecule (cross section) Chapter 4 Nuclear reactions and releasing of energy Introduction
Here we
discus two experiments:
1)
Creating a deuterium nucleus by fusing one proton and one neutron together.
Result: a) Volume and mass of the both particles are decreased from their
individual states, b) Densities of the both particles are remaining
unchanged, c) Reaction is exothermic.
In the bond making, the particles overlap each other. As the densities of the particles are remaining unchanged, the particles must release the overlapped volume of mass to the outer world. Since the nuclear particles have great density, the released mass will detonate and become to space matter*. As this detonation is taking place from the region that the particles are bonded, the product nucleus act as a projectile with great kinetic energy. 2) Splitting of a deuterium nucleus into one proton and one neutron. Result: a) Volume and mass of the both particles are regained, b) Densities of the both particles are remaining unchanged, c) Reaction is endothermic.
In the
bond breaking, the particles absorb energy for the splitting. At the same
time, the both particles absorb the same amount of masses that previously
released, from their surroundings, for regaining their masses and volumes.
We can calculate the releasing of energy in a nuclear reaction by knowing the expansion ratio from the nuclear density for the given mass defect.
The earlier investigations on the cause of releasing of energy in nuclear reactions are focused only on the mass defect and the missing mass were directly interpreted for the calculation of energy release and then arrived in a conclusion is that "mass and energy are interchangeable" and the mass that missed is simply converted into pure energy (Einstein's famous equation E=mc2). But with a close look we can see that, in a nuclear reaction, the decreasing of volume of individual nuclear particles is also equally important along with the mass defect for the accurate measurement of the releasing of energy, and also importantly, only fusion reactions between nuclear particles release energy.
When
two or more nuclear particles are bonded together to form a nucleus, i.e.
the sticking protons and neutrons together cause some of their volumes to
shrink. Since a free proton or neutron (without any binding each other) has
its own natural volume and density, when the particles overlap each other,
they tend to release the overlapped volume of matter to the outer world
because of to maintaining the densities of the particles in natural
levels. Since the greater density of nuclear particles, the released matter
will detonate and will become to space matter. As these explosions are take
place where from the regions that the particles are bonded, the bonded
particles act as projectiles with very great kinetic energy. When this high
energetic particles collide with the surrounding particles with colossal
kinetic energy that causes the intensive thermal and other form of
radiations along with the enormous blast waves. Reactions between one proton and one neutron are illustrated below:
We can find some important facts from the above illustration
In the
fusion reaction, there is a decreasing of volumes of the proton and neutron
from their original volumes along with the decreasing of masses from their
original masses. And another important fact is that, the densities of the
both particles are remaining unchanged in the reaction. In the fission reaction, the volumes of the proton and neutron regain its original volumes along with the regaining of its original masses. And here also, the densities of both particles are remaining unchanged. Releasing of energy in the fusion process When one proton and one neutron are bonded together to form a deuterium nucleus, their net volume decreases without changing their densities. It is noted that, the density of an atomic nucleus is about 1014g cm-3 (i.e. the combined density of proton and neutron in a nuclear formation). In the bond making, the particles overlap each other. As the densities of the particles are remaining unchanged, the particles must release the overlapped volume of mass to the outer world. Since the nuclear particles have great density, the released mass will detonate and become to space matter. As this detonation is taking place from the region that the particles are bonded, the product nucleus acts as a projectile with great kinetic energy. When this highly energetic deuterium nucleus collides with the surrounding particles, causes the generation of great amount of thermal energy. Absorption of energy in the fission process When the deuterium nucleus splits into one proton and one neutron, the two particles are regaining their original volumes and masses but without changing their densities. Absorbing space matter that present in the outer region by the particles can only happen this. The particles absorb the same amount of energy that released in the fusion reaction for the splitting reaction. At the same moment of the separation, the particles absorb space matter from surroundings for maintaining their density. Calculation of releasing of energy We can calculate the releasing of energy in a nuclear reaction by knowing the expansion ratio from the nuclear density for the given mass defect. One misunderstanding about the nuclear fission reactions There is a widely accepted belief is that the fission of large nuclei like Uranium 235, Plutonium 239 etc are release energy when neutrons bombard with them. The real fact is that, when a neutron bombards a Uranium 235 nucleus for example, it absorbs the kinetic energy of the neutron for the splitting and it is purely an endothermic nuclear reaction. But, the energy is released when the partially scattered nuclear particles (neutrons and protons) are re-arranged and fused together to form the two daughter nuclei of one Cesium and one Rubidium atom. I.e., when a neutron bombards a U235 nucleus, it splits into two un-spherical pieces along with 2-3 free neutrons. It is noted that, in a nuclear density, the spherical arrangement of nuclear particles (to a attainable level) is very important for a nucleus for restoring its physical equilibrium (actually no nuclei, except hydrogen atom with one proton in its nucleus, are not having a perfect spherical shape). For achieving a physically stable state, the protons and neutrons will undergo a rapid re-arrangement in the daughter pieces (mostly the particles in the outer regions). This process will lead to some extra bonding (fusions) between the particles. This extra bonding causes the releasing and expansion of space matter and yields the releasing of nuclear energy along with the emission of gamma rays like radiations. Evidences for the releasing and expansion (detonation) of space matter in nuclear reactions a) Kinetic energy associated with the particle radiations in a nuclear reaction (in nuclear explosions and radioactive decay process). The particles get their kinetic energies from the explosion of space matter (the particle radiations get only a fraction of the energy from the explosion of space matter as there is no 100% efficient projectiles). b) High temperature and radiations Since the space matter explosions are take place where from the regions that the particles are bonded, the bonded particles act as projectiles with very great kinetic energy. When this highly energetic particles collide with the surrounding particles with colossal kinetic energy, which causes the intensive thermal and other form of radiations.
c).
The shock wave is caused by the fast expansion of
the air because of the heat (explosion). There are two reasons for this phenomenon 1) Space matter produced in the nuclear reactions creates a higher space matter density in the near surface of the Sun. When light passes from a rare medium to denser medium or vice versa, it will be refracted and bended. 2). Because of the gravitational pull that exerted on the surrounding space matter by the Sun, a denser region of space matter develops around the Sun- like as the higher atmospheric air density on the surface of the Earth.
e).
Lensing effect in some region of the galaxies.
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