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Electrons in a Non-Excited Atom Are Motionless Joseph George Introduction
An
electron can exhibit wave nature when it is situated in the following
circumstances. a) In a background from radio waves to gamma rays. b) In a
varying electric or magnetic field. c) When an electron is accelerated [for
example, when an electron is accelerated by electric field or magnetic field
(attraction or repulsion) and accelerated by a radioactive nucleus (beta
ray)].
CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Chapter 1 Structure of the Atom
The Ruther Ford’s ‘Alpha particle-gold foil’ experiment has proved that most
of the mass of an atom is concentrated only in a very small region and thus
in his atom model he proposed that whole of the positive charge of the atom
is concentrated in a very small region at the center of the atom and it is
called nucleus. The electrons are assumed to be distributed outside the
nucleus. The model was very soon accepted. But soon its drawbacks were also
noticed. The greatest drawback about the model was about the stability of
the atom as a whole, because it was seen that equilibrium could not be
achieved by the operation of electrostatic forces alone between the
positively charged nuclei and negatively charged electrons. To account for
this difficulty, Ruther Ford proposed that (but without any experimental
evidences) electrons revolved around their nuclei in circular orbits with
which are just sufficient to balance the attractive force by nuclei
(Unfortunately no scientists have questioned this ‘high-speed motion’ of
electrons around the nucleus and this was the beginning of the development
of many misleading theories in the history of physical science). After understanding the instability of the Ruther Ford’s model, scientists have started to think about a series of ‘fixed energy levels’ for the “orbiting” electrons. At this time, some came up with the idea that, light exhibits the so-called ‘wave- particle’ dual nature. This was the time to Louis DeBroglie’s ‘breakthrough postulate’ that, particles (electron in this case) have wave nature as well as their particle nature. Many scientists have misguided with these “dual nature” of light and particles and that eventually led to the fabrication of many ‘breathtaking’ ideas like matter waves, standing waves, electron clouds, uncertainty principle etc and all these are resulted in the development of the present atom model. The model says that, the nucleus of an atom is surrounded by a series of stationary waves. These waves have crests at certain points, each complete standing wave representing an orbit. The absolute square of the amplitude of the wave at any point at a given time is a measure of the probability that an electron will be found there. Thus, an electron can no longer be said to be at any precise point at any given time. This series of stationary waves by the electrons are used today for explaining all phenomenon that generated by atoms. In physics, the Quantum mechanics - the study of the relationship between quanta and elementary particles is created purely based on the concept of ‘dual nature’ of particles and light. The historical background for these theories is that, the Ruther Ford’s experiment has proved that the 99.98% of the mass of an atom is concentrated in its nucleus only and which has only a diameter of about 1/10000 of the diameter of the atom. This ‘mysterious’ huge volume of space inside of the atom out of the nucleus has compelled the scientists to find that, what makes the volume of an atom? From the belief of the ‘wave- particle duality’ of photon, the dual nature was also suggested to particles and reached in a conclusion is that; series of standing waves by the electrons cause the volume and rigidity of atoms. Experiments that led to believe the ‘wave nature’ of particles 1) Particle diffraction experiment 2) Slit experiment 3) Davisson and Germer experiment
We can
see that, in all these experiments, particles are accelerated to at a great
velocity. When particles are accelerated or they are getting kinetic energy,
they will try to dissipate its energy and oscillate. The oscillations are
caused by one or more reasons as follows- a) interactions with the space
matter (charged particles make electric and magnetic field lines by the
lineup of space matter units as a chain), b) interactions with the
surrounding particles, c) interactions with the surrounding electric or
magnetic field, d) interactions with the radiation background (from radio
waves to much higher frequency waves) etc. Charged particles have a standing- electric field and magnetic field in right angle (see the structure of electron and proton). It is noted that, its shape influences the path of a projectile when it moves through a medium. For example, the falling of a spherical object from some height to the earth surface (by the action of gravity) will be almost in straight line and oscillation free. But an irregular shaped body will not be in a perfectly straight line and can make oscillations when it accelerated through the air by the gravity of the earth.
When a
charged particle is accelerated, its field lines cause it to oscillate
because of the interactions between field lines and surrounding space matter
(when a collection of particles are accelerated, the interactions between
them will be also occurred).
An uncharged particle like neutron has only a standing- magnetic field. When a neutron is accelerated, its standing magnetic field causes it to oscillate. In short, particles will make oscillations when they are moving in high speed. Also, particle’s wavelength decreases with the increasing of their speed. I.e. a particle’s frequency increases with the increasing of its kinetic energy. A charged particle can be accelerated in different ways 1) Attraction by opposite charged particles. 2) Repulsion by same charged particles. 3) Attraction / repulsion by a magnetic field. 4) By incident photons. 5) A radioactive nucleus can emit accelerated particles (both charged and uncharged particles). An electron can exhibit wave nature when it is situated in the following circumstances a) In a background from radio waves to gamma rays. b) In a varying electric field or magnetic field. c) When an electron is accelerated [for example, when an electron is accelerated by electric field or magnetic field (attraction or repulsion) and accelerated by a radioactive nucleus (beta ray)].
We know
that, in an isolated- non-radioactive atom, there are two types of forces
acting on its electrons. They are 1) attractive force from the nucleus and
2) repulsive forces between electrons (in hydrogen atom, attraction from the
nucleus only). But, these forces cannot create constant motion in electrons
and so there is no any wave nature for electrons. Since the ‘stationary waves’ theory of electrons in the atom has proved wrong, then many questions emerge a) What prevents the electrons from falling into the nucleus? b) What makes the volume of an atom? c) What makes the rigidity of an atom? d) How an atom emits or absorbs light? e) How magnetic field is created? f) How atoms bond together to make molecules? …. Since there are no orbital motions (and so, no centrifugal force) for electrons, there must be a force that prevents the electrons from falling into the positive charged nucleus. Refraction, when light passes from one medium to another medium (i.e. the slowdown of velocity, when light enters to a medium), pair production of one electron and one positron when an energetic gamma ray photon is passed through near a heavy atomic nucleus, elastic nature of atoms- for example, a) gas atoms move randomly in high speed and bounce back when they collide with other atoms or its container, b) the capacity of a material to store thermal energy (oscillation and collision between atoms), c) oscillation of atoms even in ‘cryogenic’ conditions, d) emission of electrons by thermal vibration of atoms in a material (Thermionic emission), e) Phonon (a mode of vibration occurring in a rigid crystal lattice) etc are indicate that, the nucleus of an atom is surrounded by a form of elastic matter. I name this matter as “space matter” (a method for detecting space matter that released in an exothermic chemical reaction / nuclear reaction is explained in the ‘space matter’ section). Conventionally we know that, there is two types of forces are acting on the electrons in multi-electron atoms (i.e. atoms other than hydrogen). They are 1) attractive force from the nucleus, 2) repulsive forces between electrons (electrons within a shell and electrons from inner and outer shells). But we see above that, there is an additional force that exerted on the electrons, which keeps the electrons from falling into the nucleus. That force is the buoyant force that exerted by space matter. So, there are three factors that determine the electron configuration in a multi- electron atom; they are 1) attraction from the nucleus, 2) repulsion between electrons, c) buoyant force exerted on the electrons by space matter.
We know
that, every element has its own unique set of spectrum lines (emission or
absorption). Since the emission lines from the atom of an element are
unique, we can consider an atom of an element consists of a unique- series
of natural frequencies* for its electrons. The shortest wavelength radiation
that one atom can emit increases with the increasing of its atomic mass.
I.e. the natural frequency of the innermost electrons of an atom increases
with the increasing its atomic mass.
From Wien's law, we see that a very cold object with a temperature of only a few Kelvins emits primarily microwaves. An object at "room temperature" (about 295K) emits primarily Infrared radiation. And an object with a temperature of a few thousand Kelvins emits mostly visible light. An object with a temperature of a few million Kelvins emits most of its radiation in the X-ray wavelengths. From this, we can see that, as the temperature increases, an atom’s more and more inner electrons will be excited and emit higher and higher frequency radiations.
When a low-pressure hydrogen gas is excited in a discharge tube, the hydrogen atoms generate a set of spectrum lines. Since the hydrogen atom has only one electron, the shortest wavelength radiation that the hydrogen emits will be the natural frequency of electron shell of the hydrogen atom. Because of hydrogen has only one electron; unlike other multi-electron atoms, the electron configuration in the hydrogen atom is determined by only two factors. They are 1) attractive force from the nucleus and 2) buoyant force by the space matter. We can see that, in hydrogen atom and helium atom, the buoyant force is the only force that keeps the electron (‘electrons’ in helium) from falling into the nucleus. In a multi-electron atom other than helium, after the electrons in the innermost shell, the buoyancy and the repulsion from electrons in the inner shell(s), both play their respective roles for preventing the electrons from falling into the nucleus. Considering the above facts we can conclude that, a) the density of space matter is greater at the near surface of the nucleus of an atom and it decreases with the increasing of the distance from the nucleus, b) the natural frequency of the innermost electron shell of an atom will be greater and it decreases with the increasing of distance from the nucleus, and c) the radius of an atom is greater than the radius of the outermost electron shell of that atom.
By
observing the spectrum lines that generated by hydrogen atoms in a discharge
lamp, we can find a wide range of shorter and longer wavelength radiations.
From above, we understood that the natural frequency of the electron shell
of hydrogen atom is the shortest wavelength Lyman series. Then how a
hydrogen atom can emit photons with these wide ranges of frequencies? From
this we can be reached in a conclusion is that, an atom has an enormous
number of ‘transitory shells’* as well as their electron shells*. Hydrogen
and helium have one electron shell, lithium
to neon has two electron shells, sodium to argon
has three electron shells and so on as well as their enormous
number of transitory shells.
We see
that the density of space matter is greater at the near surface of the
nucleus and it decreases with the increasing of distance from the nucleus
and also, the natural frequency decreases with the increasing of the
distance from the nucleus. So, it is clear that, when an atomic electron is
excited, it will oscillate in the natural frequency of its shell and emits a
photon in that frequency. As the density of space matter is greater in the
inner region of the atom, for every oscillation towards the direction of the
nucleus, the high-density space matter in the inner region of the atom
expels the electron to an outer low-density space matter region (reason for
the jumping of electron). *There are three types of shells 1) Electron shells: - Regions where the electrons are configured in an atom, when the atom in non-excited state. 2) Transitory shells: - Possible regions, which the electrons can jump from their electron shells, when they are in an excited state. 3) Inner transitory shells: - Shells that inside of the inner most electron shell. The space matter density in the inner transitory shells that close to nuclei of heavy atoms is sufficient for the production of electron - positron pair, when energetic gamma rays pass through them (see Pair production). In the case of Bremsstrahlung (breaking radiation) that caused by the collision of very high- energy electrons on atoms, inner transitory shells play important role. How the space matter shells are formed? We can see that, the line spectrums of isotopes of same element are slightly different. Since the isotopes of same element have same number of protons, we can conclude that the electric charge of the nucleus plays no role in the development of space matter shells. So, the other possible force is the strong force. Space matter is filled everywhere in the universe. Since every particle is sinked (dipped) in space matter, the distance between nuclear particles and its surrounding space matter is sufficiently close for transmitting the strong force (it is noted that, the strong force has only a range of 10-15m). The strong force is transmitted through the space matter in a very inefficient way. That is, after passing through a critical amount of space matter in outward direction from the nucleus, it will become to zero. This zero point determines the radius of an atom. The quantity of space matter that surrounds a nucleus is determined by its mass. That is, a heavy nucleus can hold a greater amount of space matter than a low mass nucleus and so the quantity of space matter in a heavy atom is greater than a low mass atom. Also, as there are no appreciable volume differences between atoms of different elements, the average space matter density in an atom increases with the increasing of the mass of its nucleus. Facts behind the natural frequencies for shells Since the incredibly constant density and elasticity of space matter at every fixed distance from the center of the nucleus of an atom (that is, each of the space matter regions that with a precise radius from the center of the nucleus), each of those regions of space matter acts as resonant columns with unique natural frequencies. As the density of space matter decreases with the increasing of the distance from nucleus, each of the different space matter density regions can be consider as shells. An atom consists of an enormous number of space matter shells with each of they are having their own unique natural frequencies. The innermost electron shell of an atom has the shortest wavelength frequency and the outermost electron shell has the longest wavelength frequency (in the case of photons that are emitted by electrons in the electron shells). The shortest wavelength photon that one atom can emit is in the natural frequency of its innermost electron shell and the longest wavelength photon that one atom can emit is in the natural frequency of the outermost transitory shell of that atom. As an atom has enormous number of transitory shells in between the innermost electron shell and the outermost transitory shell, an atom can emit photons in any frequency that between the natural frequency of its innermost electron shell and outermost transitory shell. State of electrons in an atom Normally, all atoms in the nature are situated in one or more energy backgrounds and the electrons in atoms are influenced by those energy backgrounds. For example, incident photons, varying - electric field / magnetic field, collisions of energetic particles with atoms, collisions between atoms etc. When a low energy background influences outermost electrons of atoms, a high-energy background influences both the inner and outer electrons. Radiations by an atom (from micro waves to X-rays) are the direct indication for which of the electrons are excited. That is, if an atom emits only microwave frequencies, then we can conclude that only outermost electrons of that atom are excited and all the inner electrons are perfectly stationary. But, when an atom emits more and more higher frequencies, we can understand that the atom's more and more inner electrons are excited as well as its outer electrons. Mode of oscillation of electrons in atoms There are two types of oscillations for atomic electrons: a) Horizontal oscillations (light reflecting): When the binding energy (to the nucleus) of an electron is greater than the energy of an incident photon, the electron makes horizontal oscillations (about the nucleus) and the light will be reflected. For example, the reflection of microwaves, light etc when they fall of atomic electrons. b) Vertical oscillations (light emitting): If the background energy is greater than that of the binding energy of electrons, the electrons make vertical oscillations (about the nucleus) and light will be emitted. For example, all types of the excitation of atoms (collision of high energy particles on atoms, when high energy photons fall on inner electrons - secondary radiations, Compton Effect etc, exothermic reactions, electric resistance of materials etc).
Structure of the electron, proton (charged particles) & neutron Charged particles like electron and proton have a standing- electric field and magnetic field in right angle. The neutron has only a standing-magnetic field (see. fig).
Evidences for the right angle relationship between electric and magnetic field of charged particles 1) Flow of electrons in a conductor is caused by the attraction between electric fields of ‘mobile’ electrons and ‘fixed’ positive charges and this flow creates a magnetic field that is perpendicular to the direction of the current. 2) Magnetic resistance: - When the applied magnetic field is perpendicular the current, the magnetic resistance will be maximum.
3) When a charged particle moves through a magnetic field, it feels a force
that is at right angle to the velocity of the charged particle.
5) Since the electric fields of atomic electrons are always directed to the nucleus, the magnetic field created by electrons in an atom is an evidence for the right angle relationship (see electron configuration in atoms). 6) Hall effect (the Hall effect refers to the potential difference (Hall voltage) on the opposite sides of an electrical conductor through which an electric current is flowing, created by a magnetic field applied perpendicular to the current). 7) Lorentz Force (moving charges experience a force when a magnetic field is present that is not parallel to their motion). 8) Stewart-Tolman effect & Barnett effect Stewart-Tolman effect:-In a conducting body undergoing accelerating motion, inertia causes the electrons in the body to "lag" behind the overall motion. In the case of linear acceleration, negative charge accumulates at the end of the body; while for rotation the negative charge accumulates at the outer rim.
Barnett effect: - The magnetization of a ferromagnetic body when spun on its axis. The magnetization occurs parallel to the axis of spin. When the body rotates, the mobile electrons move to the outer rim due to the centrifugal force and accumulate there. This separation of charges creates a potential difference between the axis and the outer rim. As the electric field of an electron will be always directed to a positive charge and the electron has electric and magnetic field in right angles, the magnetic field is created parallel to the axis of the spin.
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